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WOODWORK 
1  TOR  BEGINNERS 


8 

CO 

in 


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GRIFFITH 


WOODWORK  FOR 
BEGINNERS 


By 
IRA  SAMUEL  GRIFFITH 

Professor  of  Industrial  Education 
University  of  Illinois 


THE  MANUAL  ARTS  PRESS 
PEORIA,  ILLINOIS 


A 


COPYRIGHT,  1916.  BY 
IRA  SAMUEL  GRIFFITH 
Fourth  Edition.  1919 


PREFACE 

THIS  BOOK  has  been  written  in  the  hope  that  it  may  be  of 
service  in  those  grammar  schools  where  a  more  extended  treat- 
ment of  subject-matter,  such  as  that  contained  in  the  author's 
Essentials  of  Woodworking,  is  not  possible  of  utilization  to  an 
extent  sufficient  t6  warrant  its  adoption  as  an  individual  text. 

The  average  time  presupposed  for  the  accomplishment  of 
the  subject-matter  contained  herein,  with  its  efficient  application 
in  the  form  of  projects  or  models,  is  from  one  to  three  hours  a 
week  for  a  period  of  two  years,  or  its  equivalent.  One-third  of 
this  time  may  well  be  devoted  to  correlated  mechanical  drawing. 

With  the  limited  time  at  the  student's  disposal  as  presup- 
posed in  this  text,  there  is  hardly  time  for  any  study  of  related 
informational  matter,  such  as  trees  and  tree  growth.  Then, 
too,  in  many  schools  such  subject-matter  is  efficiently  treated  in 
the  classes  in  nature  study,  or  should  be. 

The  teacher  desiring  an  outline  of  a  course  in  woodwork  with 
drawings  of  possible  projects  suitable  for  grammar  grades  is 
referred  to  the  author's  Correlated  Courses  in  Woodwork  ani 
Mechanical  Drawing. 

Assignment  of  text  for  study  should  be  by  sections,  as  they 
relate  to  the  shopwork  being  done,  rather  than  by  page  sequence. 


416035 

v  ?    -y.  *'*  ^7  «•> 

*•  ^        -TT.  7f         / 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE,      'y,      ,   . ,,»*.•   ..-....,;..,.  ..      .,  •• ,  •  -; ,  « .  ••;  3 

CHAPTER  I.    LUMBER   TERMS;    WORKING   DRAW- 
INGS; ESTIMATING  STOCK      ,»-    ,.          7 

i.  Lumber     terms;      2.     Working      drawings; 

3.  Stock  bill. 

CHAPTER  II.    LAYING-OUT   TOOLS;   THEIR    USES      13 

4.  The  rule;    5.  Pencil  and  knife;   6.  The  try- 
square;    7.  The  framing  square;    8.  The  bevel; 
9.  The  marking  gage;  10.  The  dividers. 

CHAPTER  III.     SAWS;  THEIR  USES          .       .       .19 
.     ii.  Hand  or  crosscut-saw  and  rip-saw;  12.  Saw- 
ing with  hand  or  crosscut-saw  and  with  rip-saw; 

13.  The  back-saw. 

CHAPTER  IV.    PLANES;      THEIR      ADJUSTMENTS. 

FACE  SIDE;  FACE  EDGE         .       .     24 

14.  Planes;     15.  Adjustments    of    a    standard 
plane;   16.  Face- side,  face-edge. 

CHAPTER  V.    SQUARING-UP    STOCK          .       .       .     30 

17.  Mill-marks;  18:  Methods  of  squaring-up 
stock;  19.  Squaring-up  mill-planed  stock,  first 
method;  20.  Squaring-up  mill-planed  stock, 
second  method;  21.  Squaring-up  rough  stock; 
22.  Planing  a  chamfer. 
5 


6  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

CHAPTER  VI.    BORING      TOOLS;      THEIR  USES. 

CHISELS  AND  CHISELING  .       .     43 
23.  Brace    or    bitstock;     24.     The    auger-bit; 

25.  The     drill     bit;     awls;     the     gimlet  bit; 

26.  Countersink     bit;      screwdriver     bit;  27. 
Chisels;     28.  Chiseling;     29.  The    gouge;  30. 
Whetting  chisels  and  plane  irons. 

CHAPTER  VII.    ADDITIONAL    TOOLS    AND    APPLI- 
ANCES; THEIR  USES       .      ' .  -     .     53 

31.  Sandpaper;  32.  Hammer;  nailset;  33.  Nails; 
nailing;  34.  The  screwdriver;  screws;  fastening 
with  screws;  35.  Glue;  clamps;  36.  The  spoke- 
shave;  working  curved  edges. 

CHAPTER  VIII.     SIMPLE  JOINERY    ..../..      ,.       .     61 

37.  Joinery;  general  directions;  38.  Directions 
for  making  a  dado;  39.  Cross-lap  joint;  40. 
Directions  for  cross-lap  joint. 

CHAPTER  IX.    WOOD    FINISHING      .    ,».,<•       .     69 

41.  Materials  for  wood  finishing;  42.  General 
directions  for  using  brush;  43.  Simple  finishes 
for  close  grained  woods;  44.  Simple  finishes  for 
coarse  grained  woods;  45.  Painting. 


WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 


CHAPTER  I 

LUMBER  TERMS;  WORKING  DRAWINGS; 
ESTIMATING  STOCK 

1.  Lumber  Terms. —  Every  boy  who  has  had  to  cut 

kindling    knows    that    wood 

will  split  when  struck  along 

the  general  direction  of  its 

growth.     The  fibers  separate 

easily,  Fig.  1.     "  Grain  "is  a 

term  used  to  designate  the 

direction  of  the  fibers; "  along 

the    grain"    means    in    the 

general  direction  of  growth. 

" Length"  in  woodwork  has 

reference  to  that  direction  in     Fig.  1. 

which  the  wood  splits  easiest; 

that  is,  along  the  grain.  A  board  might  therefore,  be  wider 

than  it  is  long. 
\  1  Fig.  2  will  make 
clear  the  mean- 
ings of  other  terms 


Splits  Easiest  Along 
the  Grain 


END 


Fig.  2. 


Common  Terms  Illustrated     Fig.  3.    Direction  of  Surface  Grain 

7 


8  WOODWORK,  FOR*  BEGINNERS 

In  planirig,  a  -surface  v/il'i-  sometimes  be  roughened 
instead  of  smoothed;  this  is  called  working  "against  the 
grain."  Fig.  3  shows  the  reason  for  the  roughening; 
the  remedy  consists  in  changing  the  direction  of  the 
planing,  or  of  the  board. 


PERSPECTIVE 


WORKING  DRAWING 

Fig.  4.    Pictorial    vs.  Working  Drawing  of  Block 


Fig.  5.     Working  Drawing  of  Wood  Spool 

2.  Working  Drawings. —  Drawings  are,  in  general, 
of  two  kinds,  pictorial  and  working.     A  pictorial  draw- 


LUMBER  TERMS  —  WORKING   DRAWINGS  9 

ing  represents  an  object  as  it  appears,  while  a  working 
drawing  represents  the  object  as  it  really  is,  Fig.  4. 
The  latter  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  workman 
for  it  tells  him  concisely  all  about  the  object, —  its  size, 
shape,  kind  of  material,  etc. 

Fig.  5  shows  two  views  of  a  common  wood  spool. 
The  front  view  is  the  view  one  would  get  by  looking  at 
the  object  from  the  front;  the  side  view,  the  view  one 


Fig.  6. 


Mechanical  Draw- 
ing Cage 


Fig.  7.     Cage  Unfolded 


would  get  by  looking  at  the  side  of  the  object;  a  top 
view,  the  view  one  would  get  by  looking  at  the  top  of 
the  object,  the  observer  in  each  case  being  so  far  away 
from  the  object  that  the  views  show  the  real  shape  of 
the  object  and  not  its  perspective.  The  side  view  will  be 
found  at  the  side  of  the  front  view  and  the  top  view  will 
be  found  directly  above  the  front  view.  An  examina- 
tion of  Figs.  6  and  7  should  enable  one  to  fix  the  relation- 
ship of  the  views  in  mind.  Fig.  6  represents  an  object 
within  a  "cage"  where  the  views  have  been  drawn  upon 
transparent  screens.  Fig.  7  shows  the  cage  as  it  opens 
out  so  as  to  bring  all  of  the  views  in  one  plane,  as  they 
must  be  on  drawing  paper. 


10 


WOODWORK   FOR   BEGINNERS 


The  various  kinds  of  lines  in  a  working  drawing  have 
different  meanings.  The  very  light  lines  of  indefinite 
length  are  known  as  construction,  extension,  or  pro- 
jection lines.  They  are  the  first  lines  drawn.  The 
heavy  lines  represent  visible  edges  or  outlines  of  the 
object.  The  broken  or  dotted  lines  represent  hidden 
edges  or  outlines.  Those  lines  having  arrow  barbs  and 
numbers  are  known  as  dimension  lines,  and  the  barbs 


SECTION  AT  AB 


Fig.  8.     Drafting  Conventions 


indicate  the  extreme  limit  of  the  measurement  while  the 
number  indicates  the  amount.  Lines  through  the 
middle  of  an  object  dividing  it  into  two  equal  parts  are 
known  as  center  lines. 

Fig.  8  shows  how  nails  and  screws  may  be  represented. 
This  illustration  also  shows  two  other  conventions,  the 
cross-section  and  the  broken  view.  A  cross-section 
represents  an  object  as  it  would  appear  if  cut,  and  is 
indicated  by  a  shading,  known  as  cross-hatching,  as 
shown.  A  broken  view  is  used  when,  for  any  reason 
it  is  not  advisable  or  possible  to  represent  the  full  view. 
Irregular  lines  indicate  the  missing  part  and  the  dimen- 
sions indicate  the  true  size. 


LUMBER  TERMS  —  WORKING  DRAWINGS  11 

Small  objects  are  drawn  full  size,  that  is,  the  object 
and  drawing  are  of  the  same  dimensions.  A  drawing 
is  said  to  be  drawn  to  scale  when  its  parts  are  similar  in 
proportion  to  that  of  the  object  it  represents.  There 
are  various  scales  used,  such  as  J/^"  =  \'  (y^  inch  =  l 
foot);  3"  =  !',  known  as  a  quarter  scale;  and  on  very 
small  objects  we  may  have  such  scales  as  %"  =  1",  etc. 
Whatever  the  scale  used,  the  figure  on  the  drawing 
represents  the  size  of  the  object's  corresponding  part. 


Fig.  9.     Drafting  Tools 

Working  drawings  are  best  made  with  instruments. 
Fig.  9  shows  a  set.  The  T-square  is  used  in  making 
horizontal  lines,  the  lines  being  drawn  from  left  to  right. 
The  triangles  are  used  in  the  making  of  vertical  and 
oblique  lines,  the  lines  being  drawn  from  the  T-square 
upward. 

3.  Stock  Bill. —  A  good  workman  will  prepare  from 
his  working  drawing  a  stock  bill.  Fig.  10  is  an  example 
of  a  form  used  by  one  large  company.  Teacher  and 
pupil  are  referred  to  Projects  for  Beginning  Woodwork 
and  Mechanical  Drawing,  a  companion  book,  pages 
16-21,  for  a  detailed  description  of  how  to  make  and 


12 


WOODWORK   FOR   BEGINNERS 


figure  simple  projects  such  as  are  usually  made  in  ele- 
mentary manual  training  work. 

EXAMPLE  OF  FORM  FOR  BILL  OF  MATERIALS 


Ticket 

No. 

No. 

Price 

or 
Catalog 
Number 

of 
Feet 

of 
Pieces 

Size 

L'gth 

Description 

Rate 

Extensions 

280 

30 

2x4 

14 

Yellow  pine,  SIS 
and  I  E  

22 

6 

16 

2 

M 

5-2"   Red    Cedar 

Shingles  

3 

55 

7 

10 

300 

1x6 

No.  2  Y.  P.  floor- 

ing   

20 

6 

00 

JO 

26 

Fig.  10.     Stock  Bill  Form. 


CHAPTER  II 

LAYING-OUT  TOOLS;  THEIR  USES 

4.   The  Rule. —  There   are  various  styles  of  rules. 
Whatever  the  style  the  unit  of  measurement  is  the  foot 


HINGE 


INGES 


Fig.  11.     Rule 

with  its  subdivisions  into  halves,  quarters,  eighths,  and 
in  some  instances  sixteenths.     Fig.  11. 

5.  Pencil  and  Knife. —  A  knife  is  used  to  lay  out  work 
that  must  be  quite  accurate,  such  as  joints.     Where 


Fig.  12.     Thumb-gaging  Width 

accuracy  is  not  so  important  a  pencil  may  be  used. 
Pencil  lines  should  be  made  with  a  well  sharpened  lead, 

13 


14 


WOODWORK   FOR  BEGINNERS 


however.  A  good  rule  to  observe  in  bench  woodwork 
is:  Use  a  knife  and  gage  for  laying  out  except  where 
a  finished  surface  would  be  permanently  injured. 

Figs.  12  and  13  illustrate  two  ways  of  marking  a  board 
to  width  roughly,  preparatory  to  rough  sawing.     Where 


Fig.  13.     Marking  Width  with  Straight-edge 

the .  original  edge  is  fairly  straight,  thumb-gaging  is 
resorted  to.  Where  the  edge  is  not  straight  two  measure- 
ments for  width  are  made,  one  at  each  end  of  that  part 
of  the  board  to  be  removed,  and  a  straight-edge  used  to 
connect  these.  Length  in  either  case  will  be  measured 
from  the  end  of  the  board,  leaving  enough  margin  to 

allow  for  checks  at  the  end 
of  the  board ;  and  the  try- 
square  or  framing  square 
and  pencil  are  used  to 
draw  a  line  straight  across 
the  board. 
6.  The  Try-Square.— 

Fig.  14.     Try-square  77-1/1 

The    try-square,    Fig.  14, 

is  used  for  three  purposes  in  general,  first,  to  act  as  a  guide 
in  laying  out  lines  across  the  grain  of  a  piece  of  stock, 


BLADE 


BEAM 


LAYING-OUT  TOOLS 


15 


Fig.  16.    Testing  Edge  for 
Squareness 


Fig.  17.    Testing  End  for 
Squareness 


Fig.  18.    Additional  Test  of  End     Fig.  19.    Test  for  Uniformity  of 

Width 


16  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Fig.  15 ;  second,  to  test  the  edges,  Fig.  16,  or  ends,  Figs.  17 
and  18,  of  a  board  to  see  if  they  make  right  angles,  or  are 
square  with  the  faces;  third,  to  test  a  piece  of  stock  by 
sliding  the  square  along  it  with  the  eye  fixed  upon  the 


,,    ,  , 

,  i  il  ,  1  15!  1  1  16!  1  1  17!  1  1  fl  1  1  19!  1  1  I'PI  i  I'i'i  i  if  1  1  I'fi 


TONGUE 


graduations  at  the  far  edge  to  see 
whether  any  change  takes  place  as  the 
square  is  pushed  along,  Fig.  19. 

7.  The  Framing  Square. — The  fram- 
ing square,  Fig.  20,  will  be  found  useful 
about  a  shop  where  the  try-square  is 
too  small.  It  is  of  very  great  value  to 
the  carpenter  in  the  framing  of  houses 
and  barns,  etc. 


-  -  BLADE 


THU^B-5CREW 

Fig.  21.     Bevel 


8.  The  Bevel.— The  bevel,  Fig.  21, 
is  nothing  more  than  a  try-square  with 
a  movable  blade  and  a  thumb-screw 
which  will  hold  the  blade  at  any 


Fig'  ^qua^31"1"8  angle  with  reference  to  the  beam. 


LAYING-OUT  TOOLS 


17 


9.  The  Marking  Gage. —  The  marking  gage,  Fig.  22, 
is  used  for  laying  out  accurate  lines  along  the  grain  of 
the  wood. 

The  spur,  or  marking  point,  is  to  be  sharpened  like 
a  knife  point  by  means 
of  a  file,  the  cutting 
edge  to  act  when  the 
gage   is  pushed   for- 


-THUMB  -SCREW 


b 


BEAA\ 


HEAD  OR  BLOCK 

Fig.  22.    Marking  Gage 


ward  with  the  right 

hand.     A  left  handed 

person  will  have  to  draw  the  gage  toward  him  or  else 

reverse  the  cutting  edge  of  the  spur. 

As  the  graduations  on  a  gage  stick  or  beam  are  not 
reliable,  it  is  safer  to  set  a  gage  by  means  of  a  rule  held 


Fig.  23.    Setting -Marking  Gage 

as  in  Fig.  23.  As  in  all  other  work,  make  certain  of  the 
accuracy  of  the  setting  by  again  measuring  with  the 
rule  after  the  thumb-screw  has  been  adjusted  for  the 
first  setting.  Measure  from  the  gage  head  to  the 
sharpened  point  of  the  spur. 


18  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

10.  The  Dividers. —  A  good  pencil  compass  will  be 
found  better  for  elementary  woodwork  than  the  dividers, 
Fig.  24,  because  they  do  not  scratch  the  wood.  Car- 


Fig.  24.    Dividers 

penters,  however,  find  much  use  for  dividers.  Some 
dividers  are  made  with  one  leg  removable  with  an  adjust- 
ment such  that  a  pencil  may  be  substituted.  Dividers, 
like  compasses,  are  used  in  describing  circles  or  arcs. 


CHAPTER  III 

SAWS;  THEIR  USES 

11.  Hand  or  Crosscut-Saw,  and  Rip-Saw.  Saws,  as 
determined  by  their  teeth,  are  of  two  general  classes  — 
crosscut  and  rip.  The  former  class  are  used  for  cutting 


Fig.  25.     Effect  of  Chiseling 
Along  the  Grain 


Fig.  26.     Effect  of  Chiseling 
Across  the  Grain 


across  the  grain,  the  latter  for  separating  the  fibers  along 
the  grain. 

An  examination  of  Figs.  25  and  26  will  indicate  the 
necessity  for  differently  shaped  teeth  for  saws  cutting 
across  and  along  the  grain.  The  rip-saw  has  the  cutting 
edges  of  its  teeth  across  the  front  of  the  teeth,  and  is 
in  fact  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  lot  of  little  chisels, 

19 


20 


WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 


cutting  in  rapid  succession  as  the  blade  is  pushed  forward, 
Fig.  27.  The  handsaw  or  crosscut-saw  is  like  the  rip-saw 
in  all  respects  except  that  the  cutting  edges  of  the  teeth 

must  be  on  the  sides 
rather  than  across  the 
front  of  the  teeth,  Fig.  28. 
Try  the  experiment  of  try- 


CUTTING  EDGE 


Fig.  27.     Teeth  of  Rip-saw 


on 


ET1D  VIEW    (EXAGGERATED) 


ing  to  cut  a  kerf  across 
the  grain  by  holding  the 
chisel  as  in  cutting  along  the  grain,  the  reason 
for  shaping  the  teeth  with  the  cutting  edges 
the  sides  of  the  teeth 
will  readily  be  seen. 
12.  Sawing  with 
Hand  or  Crosscut- 
Saw  and  with  Rip- 
Saw. — In  using  these 
saws,  generally  the 
board  to  be  sawed 
will  be  placed  upon  a 
pair  of  trestles  or 
"sawhorses."  Place 
the  knee  upon  the 
board  and  assume  a 
position  for  ripping 
similar  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  29.  The  in- 
dex finger  of  the  right  hand  should  extend  along  the 
side  of  the  saw  to  assist  in  guiding  it;  place  the  thumb 
of  the  left  hand  upon  the  board  at  the  place  the  cut  is  to 
be  made  and  the  blade  of  the  saw  against  the  thumb 


ZDGE   VIEW 


CUTTING  EDGE 


SIDE  VIEW 

Fig.  28.     Teeth  of  Crosscut-saw 


SAWS;  THEIR  USES  21 

lightly.    Holding  the  cutting  edge  at  an  angle  of  about 
60'  degrees  with  reference  to  the  surface  of  the  board, 

begin  the  sawing  with 
short,  light,  easy 
strokes,  gradually  in- 
creasing their  length  as 
the  kerf  is  formed,  un- 
til almost  the  full 
length  of  the  saw  is 
used.  Strive  to  keep 
the  eyes,  hand,  and 
saw  blade  in  one  and 

Fig.  29.     Position  for  Ripping  the      Same      Plane« 

Should  it   become 

necessary  to  change  the  direction  of  the  saw  because 
of  its  not  following  the  line 
properly,  this  can  be  done 
by  gently  twisting  the 
blade  as  the  sawing  pro- 
ceeds in  the  direction  it 
should  take.  This  twisting 
must  be  done  with  care  or 
the  blade  will  bind  and 
kink.  When  nearing  the 
finish  of  a  kerf,  shorten 
the  length  of  stroke  and 
lighten  the  weight  of  the 


Fig.  30.     Position    for    Final 
Crosscutting 


saw  by  holding  up  on  it, 
at  the  same  time  taking 
hold  of  the  part  being  cut  off,  Fig.  30. 

In  cutting  a  piece  from  a  large  board,  rip-saw  first 


22 


WOODWORK   FOR  BEGINNERS 


and  then  crosscut  to  meet  the  ripped  kerf,  thus  leaving 
on  the  main  board  all  but  just  what  is  wanted.  This 
practice  is  more  economical  and  is  less  likely  to  result  in 
a  split  piece. 


BACK  PIECE 


BLADE 


J 

|! 

P01N' 

f                  TEETH                        HEEL 

Fig.  31.     Back-saw 

HANDLE 


13.  The  Back-Saw.—  The  back-saw,  Fig.  31,  is  used 
for  both  ripping  and  crosscutting  upon  fine  work.  The 
blade  is  made  quite  thin  and  is  reinforced  by  means  of 
a  back  piece. 

The  handsaw  or  crosscut-saw  and  the  rip-saw 
are  used  mainly  upon  coarser  work 
such  as  the  cutting  out  of  stock.  In 
such  a  case  the  penciled  lines  are 
placed  so  as  to  lay  out  the  piece 
somewhat  wider  and  longer  than  the 
dimensions  desired  for  the  finished 
piece.  Here  the  saw  is  placed  so  as 
to  " straddle"  the  penciled  line.  In 
accurate  sawing,  as  with  a  back-saw, 
Accurate  a  knife  line  is  used,  being  placed  at 
the  exact  location  desired  for  the 
finished  piece.  The  saw  blade  is  then  placed  so  as  to 
bring  the  kerf  entirely  upon  the  waste  wood,  but  with 
no  wood  left  between  the  kerf  and  line,  Fig.  32.  The 
proper  starting  positions  for  the  back-saw  are  shown 


WASTE 

Fig.  32. 

Sawing  to  Line 


SAWS;  THEIR  USES  23 

in  Figs.  33  and  34.  Upon  a  narrow  piece  the  saw  may 
be  started  from  one  side  only,  usually  the  far  side.  As 
with  the  other  saws,  the  beginning  strokes  are  short, 


Fig.  33.     Starting  Position  in 
Backsawing 


Fig.  34.     Alternate  Starting 
Position 


light,  easy  ones,  increasing  in  length  as  the  sawing  pro- 
ceeds. The  handle  is  gradually  shifted  as  the  newly 
formed  kerf  provides  a  guide  for  the  blade,  until  the 
back  is  in  a  horizontal  position, 
In  manual  training  work  the 
back-saw  is  often  used  for  rough 
cutting  off  of  small  stock,  the  kerf 
being  made  with  reference  to  the 
knife  line  as  in  Fig.  35,  the  surplus 
stock  remaining,  being  removed 
with  a  plane.  In  such  sawing 
the  stock  should  be  placed  flat 
side  up,  not  edge  up,  a  back-saw 
blade  cannot  be  twisted  as  can  the 
hand-saw  and  rip-saw  to  make  it 
follow  the  line. 


WASTE 


Fig.  35.      Sawing  Par- 
allel to  Line 


CHAPTER  IV 

PLANES;  THEIR  ADJUSTMENTS;  FACE  SIDE,  FACE  EDGE 

14.  Planes. —  The  planes  shown  in  Figs.  36-39  are 
those  most  used  in  ordinary  woodwork.     Of  these,  the 


Fig.  36.    Jack  Plane 


Smooth  Plan2 


jack-plane  alone  will  suffice  for  grammar  grade  work, 
its  iron  being  ground  straight  across  then  whetted  very 
slightly  rounding.  Where  a  full  set  of  planes  is  avail- 
able, the  jack-plane  is  used  for  taking  off  rather  large 


Fig.  38.     Jointer 

quantities,  the  blade  being  still  more  rounding  than  for 
manual  training  purposes. 

The  smooth-plane,  Fig.  37,  is  also  sometimes  used 
in  elementary  manual  training  work.     Its  short  length 

24 


PLANES;  THEIR  ADJUSTMENT  25 

makes  it  less  suited  for  planing  edges  of  15"  and  over. 
It  is  used  by  carpenters  for  smoothing,  the  blade  being 
ground  and  whetted  straight  across  with  the  corners 
slightly  rounded. 

The  jointer,  Fig.  38,  is  used  mainly  for  planing  edges 
of  long  boards,  etc.  The  blade  is  ground  and  whetted 
straight  across.  The  extra  length  keeps  the  blade  from 
cutting  the  hollows  until  the  high  spots  have  been 
removed. 

The  block-plane,  Fig.  39,  is  of  especial  advantage 
where  a  vise  is  not  available  for  holding  the  stock,  and 
one  hand  must  be  used  to  hold  the 
stock  while  the  other  holds  the 
plane.  It  differs  from  the  other 
planes  in  that  it  has  no  cap-iron 
and  in  having  the  bevel  of  the 
plane-iron  placed  up  instead  of  down.  The  mouth  of 
this  plane  is  adjustable,  a  small  lever  at  the  front  of 
the  plane  being  used  for  this  purpose. 


Fig 


Block  Plane 


1.  Plane-iron. 

2.  Cap-iron. 

3.  Plane-iron  Screw. 

4.  Cap. 

5.  Cap-screw. 

6.  Frog. 

.  "  Y  "  Adjustment. 
.  Adjusting  Nut. 


9.  Lateral     Adjust- 
ment. 

10.  Frog  Screw, 
n.  Handle. 

12.  Knob. 

13.  Handle    Bolt    and 

Nut. 

14.  Knob     Bolt     and 

Nut. 

15.  Handle  Screw. 

16.  Bottom,     Bed    or 

Sole. 


Fig.  40.    Parts  of  a  Standard  Plane 

15.  Adjustments  of  a  Standard  Plane.— Fig.  40 
names  and  locates  the  various  parts  of  a  modern  plane. 


26  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

Fig.  41  shows  in  detail  the  two  irons  of  the  plane, 
the  plane-iron  or  plane-blade  or  bit  and  the  cap-iron. 
The  cap-iron  acts  as  a  shaving  breaker.  Were  the  grain 
of  the  wood  the  least  unfavorable  and  such  a  shaving 
breaker  not  used,  the  plane-iron  would  cause  the  wood 
to  split  and  break  as  shown  in  Fig.  41,  lower  figure. 
The  sectional  view,  Fig.  40,  shows 
the  relative  positions  of  plane- 
iron  and  cap-iron.  The  cutting 
edge  of  the  plane-iron  should 
extend  about  yg-  in.  below  that  of 
the  cap-iron  for  ordinary  work. 
For  fine  work  this  distance  may 
be  lessened.  Before  the  irons  are 
Fig.  41 '.  Action  With  placed  in  the  plane  the  plane-iron 

and  WUhoutJhaving         gcrew  mugt  be  made  f ast  by  means 

of  a  screwdriver  or  the  plane  cap. 
After  the  irons  are  fastened  together  properly,  they 
may  be  placed  in  the  throat  of  the  plane,  plane-iron  down 
and  cap-iron  up.  Make  certain  the  plane-iron  rests 
flat  upon  the  frog,  with  the  Y-adjustment  inserted  in  the 
slot  made  for  it  in  the  cap-iron.  The  cap  may  next  be 
placed  and  its  cam  pushed  down.  Should  it  be  impos- 
sible to  force  the  cam  into  place  without  great  pressure, 
first  look  to  see  that  the  plane-iron  rests  flat  upon  the 
frog  with  the  Y-lever  in  its  slot  in  the  cap-iron.  With 
beginners,  this  is  the  most  frequent  cause  of  a  tight  acting 
cam.  Sometimes,  however,  a  loose  acting  cap-screw 
will  be  the  cause  of  either  a  tight  or  a  loose  acting  cam. 
Once  a  cap-screw  is  adjusted,  it  seldom  needs  attention 
unless  loose  fitting.  The  cam  should  cause  the  cap  to 


PLANES;  THEIR  ADJUSTMENT 


27 


press  no  tighter  against  the  irons  than  is  necessary  to 
prevent  their  moving  from  side  to  side  in  the  throat  of 
the  plane  when  tested  with  the  ringers. 

In  adjusting  a  plane-iron  for  depth  of  cut,  hold  the 
plane  as  in  Fig.  42,  looking  toward  the  light.  Sight 
along  the  plane  bottom,  at  the  same  time  turning  the 
brass  adjusting  nut  until  the  cutting  edge  projects  very 
slightly,  not  much 
more  than  the 
thickness  of  a 
piece  of  drawing 
paper.  A  shallow 
set  plane-iron  re- 
sulting in  "  tissue 
paper"  shavings 
will  enable  one  to 
secure  good  results 
quicker  than  any 
other  kind  of  a  set- 
ting. Where  the 
wood  is  rough  sawed,  a  carpenter,  it  is  true,  ^ill  set 
the  iron  slightly  deeper,  but  he  invariably  sets  it  shal- 
lower as  soon  as  he  has  removed  this  surplus  stock.  A 
second  adjustment  consists  in  moving  the  lateral  adjust- 
ing lever,  while  sighting  along  the  bottom  of  the  plane 
toward  the  light,  until  the  cutting  edge  of  the  iron  shall 
project  evenly. 

16.  Face  Side,  Face  Edge. —  The  first  surface  —  a 
broad  surface,  should  the  piece  not  be  square  in  section, 
and  the  first  edge  selected  or  prepared  have  a  special 
use  and  are  given  distinguishing  names.  The  first  sur- 


Fig.  42.     Sighting  a  Plane-iron 


28 


WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 


face  is  known  as  a  face  side  or  working  face,  and  the  first 
edge  is  known  as  a  face  edge  or  joint  edge.  They  are 
marked  as  indicated  in  Fig.  43,  the  marks  being  made 
near  the  middle  of  the  length  of  the  piece,  so  that  they 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  other  surfaces,  which  are 
not  marked.  From  these  two  marked  surfaces  all 
testing,  as  described  later,  is  done,  the  head  of  the  gage 


Fig.  43.     Face  Side;  Face  Edge 


Fig.  44.     Faces  Turned  In 


and  the  beam  of  the  try-square  being  held  against  these 
and  these  only.  To  do  otherwise  is  to  introduce  addi- 
tional chances  for  errors. 

Where  the  project  is  to  consist  of  but  one  member,  the 
better  broad  surface  and  the  better  edge  are  selected  for 
face  side  and  face  edge.  Frequently  it  is  difficult  to 
decide  which  is  the  better  surface  or  edge.  Usually, 
however,  streaks  of  sapwood,  or  small  knots,  or  checks 
appear  more  numerous  upon  one  surface  than  the  other. 


PLANES;  THEIR   ADJUSTMENT  29 

Where  several  members  are  to  be  joined  together  to 
form  a  project,  such  as  a  table  or  chair,  it  is  best  to  so 
select  the  faces  that  they  may  be  turned  in  when  the 
members  are  put  together,  Fig.  44.  Faces  are  more 
likely  to  be  accurately  made  than  are  the  reverse  sur- 
faces and,  for  this  reason,  the  joints  are  more  likely  to 
fit  properly  if  the  faces  are  placed  so  that  the  mortises 
or  joints  may  be  made  in  them.  This  would  mean,  of 
course,  that  the  surfaces  selected  for  faces  should  be  the 
poorer  rather  than  the  good  surfaces  as  in  the  case  of  the 
single  piece  project. 


CHAPTER  V 

SQUARING-UP  STOCK 

17.  Mill-Marks. —  Before  the  time  of  woodworking 
machines,  such  as  we  have  to-day,  it  was  customary  to 
surface  or  plane  the  broad  surfaces  by  hand,  as  will  be 
described  later  in  this  chapter.  To-day,  woodworkers 


Fig.  45.     Surfacing  Machine 

may  go  to  any  lumber  yard  and  get  stock,  machine  planed 
upon  the  two  broad  surfaces  to  stock  thicknesses.  Such 
surfaces  are  sufficiently  smooth  or  level  and  the  thick- 
nesses sufficiently  uniform  for  much  woodwork,  especially 
in  carpentry,  so  that  the  process  of  squaring  up  the  stock, 
which  means  making  the  edges,  surfaces,  and  ends  at 

30 


SQUARING-UP  STOCK  31 

right  angles  to  a  face  side  or  a  face  edge,  is  greatly 
simplified. 

Fig.  45  is  an  illustration  of  a  machine  used  to  plane 
broad  surfaces  of  boards.  This  machine  has  long  knives 
attached  to  a  revolving  cylinder  extending  across  the 
bed.  As  the  board  is  made  to  travel  over  the  bed  by  an 
automatic  feed,  these  knives,  revolving  at  a  speed  of 
3,500  to  3,800  revolutions  per  minute,  remove  chips 
entirely  across  the  board.  Where  the  board  is  fed  over 
the  table  slowly,  thus  giving  the  knives  plenty  of  time 
for  action  on  a  given  place,  it  is  difficult  for  a  beginner  to 
tell  a  machine  planed  board  from  one  that  is  hand  planed. 
The  little  ridges  and  hollows  across  the  machine  planed 
board  are  there,  however,  and  must  be  removed  with  the 
hand  plane,  where  a  stain  or  filler  is  to  be  applied  later. 
If  this  is  not  done,  every  ridge  and  hollow  will  be  made 
to  stand  out  prominently  when  the  stain  is  applied. 

18.  Methods  of  Squaring-up  Stock. —  For  the  sake 
of  convenience  we  may  classify  the  methods  of  squaring- 
up  stock  under  the  following  heads;  squaring-up  mill- 
planed  stock  for  (1)  outside  finish;  (2)  inside  finish; 
(3)  squaring  up  rough-sawed  stock  or  mill-planed  stock 
where  accuracy  is  very  important.  In  reality  there  is 
but  one  method  of  squaring-up  stock  —  number  three  — 
the  others  being  modifications  of  the  order  for  this. 

The  simplest  process  of  squaring-up  stock  is  that  used 
in  preparing  stock  for  outside  building  finish,  such  as 
base,  corner  boards,  cornice  members,  etc.  For  this 
purpose  mill-planed  stock  is  made  use  of,  stock  thick- 
nesses being  specified.  Since  such  finish  is  usually 
painted,  and,  being  on  the  outside,  does  not  require  a 


32  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

fine  treatment,  nothing  is  done  to  the  broad  surfaces, 
not  even  planing  off  the  mill-marks  or  sandpapering. 
Many  manual  training  shop  problems,  such  as  cutting- 
boards,  bird  houses,  etc.,  may  be  treated  in  this  same 
manner. 

A  larger  number  of  manual  training  projects  will  make 
use  of  the  second  method  of  squaring-up  stock  —  that 


Fig.  46.     Position  in  Edge  Planing 

used  in  preparing  interior  building  finish.  This  differs 
from  the  one  just  described  in  that,  being  intended  for 
inside  work  where  the  surfaces  will  be  stained  and  waxed 
or  varnished,  the  mill-marks  must  be  removed  from  one 
or  both  broad  surfaces,  and  these  sandpapered  well. 
Like  outside  finish,  inside  finish,  too,  does  not  require 
that  its  broad  surfaces  be  perfectly  true  or  out  of  wind, 
merely  smooth.  The  reason  stock  slightly  warped  will 
answer  for  all  exterior  and  most  interior  finish  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  most  of  the  wind  can  be  " nailed  out"  in 
assembling,  Fig.  101. 

Projects   in   furniture   construction    and  in  pattern- 


•SQUARING-UP  STOCK 


33 


making,  however,  do  not  as  a  rule  have  assemblies  which 
permit  of  " nailing  out"  warp  or  wind.  For  this  reason 
a  third  method,  more  difficult  than  those  mentioned,  is 
required  in  which  the  first  surface  must  be  made  true, 
with  warp  and  wind  removed.  A  uniform  thickness  is 
gaged  from  this  trued  surface. 
19.  Squaring-up  Mill-Planed  Stock.  First  Method: 


Fig.  47.    Starting  the  Stroke 

(1)  Select  and  mark  one  of  trie  broad  surfaces  for  a 
face  side,  Fig.  43.  (2)  Select  and  plane  a  face  edge 
(a)  square  to  the  face  side  and  (b)  straight  as  to  length. 
Place  the  piece  in  the  vise  and  assume  a  position  as 
in  Fig.  46.  Plane  the  edge  straight  as  to  its  length  and 
square  to  the  face  side  just  prepared.  In  elementary 
manual  training  the  jack-plane  will  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  Press  firmly  upon  the  knob  in  starting  the 
stroke,  Fig.  47,  and  upon  the  handle  at  its  close,  Fig.  48; 
otherwise  the  ends  will  be  lowered  more  than  the  middle 
of  the  board.  In  planing  a  long  board  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  stop  and  start  some  of  the  strokes  in  the  middle 


34 


WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 


of  the  length  of  the  board.  It  is  possible  to  do  this 
without  leaving  any  plane  marks  by  lowering  the  plane 
gradually  in  starting  and  raising  it  gradually  in  stopping 


Fig.  48.     Finishing  the  Stroke 


Fig.  49.     Sighting  for  Straightness         Fig.  50.     Straight-edge  Test 

a  stroke,  getting  what  is  known  as  a  "  feathered  "  shaving. 
Take  off  no  more  shavings  than  are  necessary  to  secure 
the  required  Straightness  and  squareness. 

After  the  first  stroke  or  two,  hold  the  piece  toward 
the  light,  as  in  Fig.  49,  close  one  eye  and  sight  for 


SQUARING-UP   STOCK 


35 


straightness.  The  beginner  will  do  well  to  make  use 
of  a  straight-edge  test,  as  in  Fig.  50,  until  he  has  made 
sure  he  can  " sight"  correctly.  No  light  should  appear 
between  the  edge  of  the  stock  and  the  straight-edge 
when  they  are  held  between  the  eye  and  the  light. 

The  second  test,  that  for  squareness  of  the  edge,  is 
made  by  holding  the  try-square  as  in  Fig.  16  and  sight- 
ing toward  the  light.  Hold  the 
beam  firmly  against  the  face  side 
and  test  at  a  sufficient  number  of 
places  along  the  edge  to  deter- 
mine what  the  true  condition  is. 

In  edge  planing  the  beginner 
should  remember  that  his  plane- 
iron  is  slightly  rounding  on  its 
cutting  edge,  and  that  all  he 
needs  do  to  take  a  shaving  at 
any  given  place  is  to  continue 
holding  the  plane  level  but  move 
the  whole  plane  body  over  until 
the  rounded  central  part  of  the 
cutter  is  immediately  over  the 
stock.  Fig.  51  shows  the  plane  placed  to  take  a  shaving 
off  the  edge  at  the  arris  nearest  the  worker.  The  final 
stroke  should  be  taken  the  full  length  of  the  stock  and 
down  the  middle  of  the  edge  that  any  slight  unevenness 
resulting  from  partial  strokes  may  be  removed. 

Place  the  face  mark  on  this  edge  when  it  meets  the 
required  tests,  marking  it  as  in  Fig.  43. 

(3)  Plane  the  second  edge  (a)  square  to  the  face  side,  (b) 
straight  as  to  its  length  and  (c)  parallel  to  the  face  edge. 


Fig.  51.    Removing  a 
High  Arris 

high"  place  on  the 


36 


WOODWORK   FOR   BEGINNERS 


Where  a  definite  and  exact  width  of  board  is  required, 
a  line  is  gaged  from  the  face  edge  by  means  of  a  mark- 
ing gage  set  as  in  Fig.  23  and  held  as  in  Fig.  52  with  the 
head  against  the  face  edge.     The  line  should  be  lightly 
made  and  the  planing  continued  until  half  of  the  light 
V-shaped  groove  is  removed.     Test  the  edge  for  square- 
ness frequently  as  the 
gage  line  is  approached 
that  the  edge  may  be 
square  when  the  line  is 
reached.      If    the  gage 
line  is  approached  pro- 
perly the  edge  should  be 
straight  and  parallel  to 
the    face    edge.      It  is 
well    for    the    beginner 
to    test    this   edge  for 
straightness,     and     for 
width  with  the  sliding 
try-square  test. 
Fig.  52.    Gaging  Where   the    waste 

stock  is  more  than  ^  in. 

it  should  be  ripped  parallel  to  the  gage  line  and  about 
J/&  in.  away  from  it. 

If  much  stock  is  to  be  removed  the  plane-iron  may  be 
set  so  as  to -take  heavy  shavings.  When  nearing  the 
gage  line  it  should  be  set  to  take  fine  shavings. 

Not  infrequently,  while  no  definite  width  is  required, 
it  is  desired  to  have  the  second  edge  planed  straight, 
square  to  the  face  side,  and  parallel  to  the  face  edge. 
In  such  a  case,  the  worker  simply  planes  the  second 


SQUARING-UP   STOCK 


37 


edge  until  it  is  straight,  square,  and  meets  the  sliding 

try- square  test  illustrated  in  Fig.  19. 

(4)  Square  up  one  of  the  ends  (a)  to  the  face  side, 

(b)  to  the  face 
edge.  Ends  may 
be  finished  in  two 
ways:  by  sawing 
accurately  to  the 
line  squared  across 
from  the  face  edge, 


i  -. 


Fig.  53.     End   Planing;  First  Position 


Figs.    15    and  32; 

second,  the  end 
may  be  planed  square.  Ends  sawed  to  make  joints  are 
usually  " undercut"  very  slightly;  that  is,  the  sawing  is 
done  in  such  a  way 
as  to  leave  the 
face  slightly  longer 
than  the  back,  thus 
insuring  a  fit  on 
the  face. 

In  planing  an 
end,  the  plane-iron 
should  be  very 
sharp  and  set  very 
shallow  and  true. 
Test  the  end  by 
holding  the  blade  of  the  try-square  across  it  with  the 
beam  against  the  face  side  and  then  the  face  edge,  Figs. 
17  and  18. 

End  planing  differs  from  edge  and  surface  planing 
in  that  the  plane-iron  must  not  be  allowed  to  cut  entirely 


Fig.  54.     End  Planing;  Second  Position 


38  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

across  the  piece  or  the  far  edge  will  be  broken  off,  Fig. 
53.  To  avoid  this,  plane  about  two- thirds  of  the  way 
across  the  end  and  then  reverse  the  piece  and  plane  from 
the  other  edge,  Fig.  54.  Test  frequently  as  indicated 
above,  and  plane  no  more  than  is  necessary  to  secure  a 
result  which  meets  the  two  tests  indicated. 

(5)  Square  up  the  second  end  (a)  square  to  the  face 
side,  (b)  square  to  the  face  edge.  Where  no  definite 
length  is  required  for  the  piece,  the  second  end  is  merely 


Fig.  55.     Measuring  Length 

planed  as  was  the  first  end,  the  same  tests  being  applied. 
That  is,  the  try-square  is  held  with  its  blade  across  the 
end  and  its  beam  against  the  face  side  and  then  against 
the  face  edge,  Figs.  17  and  18. 

If  the  end  is  to  be  sawed  square  without  planing,  the 
try-square  and  pencil,  or  knife  for  accurate  work,  will 
be  used  to  scribe  a  line  across  the  face  side  and  one  edge, 
as  in  Fig.  15.  The  stock  is  then  sawed  as  in  Fig.  32. 

Where  a  definite  length  of  stock  is  prescribed,  the 
rule  should  be  placed  as  in  Fig.  55,  and  the  exact  length 
marked.  A  line  is  scribed  through  this  mark,  Fig.  15, 
and  the  surplus  stock  either  sawed  exactly  to  the  line 
where  a  sawed  joint  is  to  be  made,  or  sawed  about  a 


SQUARING-UP  STOCK  39 

scant  T&  in.  outside  of  the  line  where  a  perfectly  smooth 
end  is  to  be  left.  After  this  latter  sawing,  the  T£  in. 
surplus  stock  is  removed  with  the  plane. 


ffA 


Fig.  56.     First  Test  for  Surface 
Trueness 


Fig.  57.     Second  Test  for  Surface 
Trueness 


Fig.  58.    Third  Test  for  Surface     Fig.  59.    Fourth  Test  for  Surface 
Trueness  Trueness 

20.  Squaring-up  Mill-Planed  Stock.  Second 
Method:  The  only  difference  between  the  second  method 
and  the  first  method  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  first 
broad  surface,  instead  of  simply  having  its  face  mark 
put  on,  must  be  planed  smooth  and  free  of  mill  marks. 
There  is  but  one  test  for  this  surface,  a  test  with  the  try- 


40 


WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 


square  held  as  in  Fig.  56  to  see  whether  the  board  is 
straight  across  the  grain,  the  test  being  made  at  a  number 
of  places  along  the  board. 

21.  Squaring-up  Rough  Stock.  Third  Method  oj 
Squaring  Stock:  (1)  True  and  smooth  a  broad  surface 
for  a*  face  side,  testing  as  in  Figs.  56,  57,  58,  59.  Put 
on  the  proper  face  mark,  Fig.  43. 


Fig.  60.     Pencil  Gaging  for  Chamfer 

(2)  Prepare  a  face  edge  in   the  usual  manner,   as 
described  in  connection  with  mill-planed  stock. 

(3)  Gage  to  width  from  the  face  edge  and  plane  to 
the  gage  line,  as  in  mill-planed  stock. 

(4)  Gage  to  thickness  on  both  edges  from  face  side. 
Plane  to  the  gage  lines,  testing  as  in  Fig.  56. 

(5)  Square  one  end  in  the  usual  manner,  testing  as  in 
Figs.  17  and  18. 

(6)  Measure  the  required  length  and  complete  the 
second  end  as  in  mill-planed  stock. 


SQUARING-UP  STOCK  41 

22.  Planing  a  Chamfer. —  Very  frequently  the  arrises 
of  a  board  are  removed;  the  result  produced  is  known  as 
a  chamfer.  Chamfers  are  laid  out  with  a  pencil  rather 


Fig.  61.     Planing  Chamfered  Edges 

than  gage  and  try-square  and  knife.  While  the  latter 
is  more  accurate  the  V-shaped  grooves  produced,  spoil 
the  appearance  of  the  piece  after  the  chamfering  is 


Fig.  62.     Planing  Chamfered  Ends 

completed  to  the  lines.  Hold  the  pencil  as  in  Fig.  60, 
first  having  measured  the  required  distance  the  chamfer 
is  to  be  laid  out  from  the  arris.  This  method  of  laying 
out  a  chamfer  is  known  as  pencil  gaging.  The  lines  will 


42 


WOODWORK  FOR   BEGINNERS 


be  laid  off  on  edges,  on  ends,  and  on  the  surface  at  the 
two  edges  and  two  ends  where  the  chamfer  is  to  be 
placed,  entirely  around  the  piece  of  stock. 

Holding  the  plane  as  in  Fig.  61  plane  the  two  arrises 
extending  along  the  grain.  Next,  holding  the  plane 
as  in  Fig.  62,  but  moving  it  in  a  horizontal  direction, 
plane  the  two  end  chamfers.  By  holding  the  plane  as 
indicated  in  Fig.  62  a  shearing  cut  is  secured  which, 
with  the  buttressed  effect  produced  by  planing  the  edge 
chamfers  first,  makes  it  possible  to  plane  entirely  across 
the  end  without  splitting  the  far  corner.  In  all  cases 
where  a  plane  is  turned  across  the  stock  so  as  to  secure 
a  shearing  cut,  the  plane  should  not  be  turned  so  far  that 
the  benefit  of  its  length  is  lost  as  an  aid  to  producing  a 
straight  surface. 

As  a  rule,  the  eye  will  detect  inaccuracies  in  a  chamfer. 
If  a  further  test  is  desired,  Fig.  63  illustrates  one. 


Fig.  63.    Testing  a  Chamfer 


CHAPTER  VI 

BORING  TOOLS;  THEIR  USES.     CHISELS  AND  CHISELING 

23.  Brace  or  Bitstock.—  The  brace,  Fig.  64,  is  used 
to  hold  various  kinds  of  bits.     A  ratchet  brace  differs 


Fig.  64.     Brace,  or  Bitstock 


Fig.  65.     Inserting  a  Bit 


from  the  plain  brace  in  that,  by  means  of  an  adjustment, 
it  can  be  made  to  turn  in  one  direction  or  the  other,  as 
well  as  being  made  to  act  as  a  plain  brace. 

To  insert  a  bit,  hold  the  brace  as  in  Fig.  65,  revolving 
the  crank  to  open  and  close  the  jaws. 

43 


44  WOODWORK   FOR   BEGTNNERS 

24.  The  Auger  Bit.—  The  auger-bit,  Fig.  68,  is  used 
for  all  ordinary  work.  The  size  of  hole  a  bit  will  bore 
can  be  told  by  the  number  on  its  tang,  which  number  is 
the  numerator  of  a  fraction  whose  denominator  is  16  on 


Fig.  66.     Horizontal  Boring;  First  Position 


Fig.  67.     Horizontal  Boring;  Second  Position 


BORING  TOOLS;   THEIR   USES  45 

auger-bits  and  32  on  drill  bits.     Sometimes  the  whole 
fraction  is  stamped  on  the  shank  or  the  tang. 

In  boring,  stand  so  as  to  sight  the  brace  and  bit  from 
two  directions  at  right  angles  one  to  the  other,  Figs.  66, 


NIRS 
SPUR 


v 5 HANK 


TWIST 

Fig.  68.     Auger-bit 


67,  69  and  70,  swinging   the   upper  part  of  the  body 
from  one  position  to  the  other  as  the  boring  proceeds. 


Fig.  69.     Vertical  Boring; 
First  Position 


Fig.  70.     Vertical  Borin< 
Second  Position 


In  boring  to  depth,  a  rule  may  be  placed  as  in  Fig.  71 
as  the  lips  begin  to  cut,  and  the  boring  continued  until 
the  measurement  at  the  grip  has  diminished  an  amount 
equal  to  that  desired  for  the  depth  of  hole. 


46 


WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 


Where  it  is  desired  to  bore  entirely  through  a  board,  it 
is  best  to  bore  from  the  first  side  until  the  spur  shows  on 
the  back,  then  reverse  the  piece  and  finish  the  boring 

from  the  reverse  side,  other- 
wise the  nibs  might  split 
the  wood  on  the  reverse 
surface. 

25.  The  Drill  Bit;  Awls; 
the  Gimlet  Bit.— The  drill 
bit,  Fig.  72,  is  tempered 
quite  hard  and  may  be 
used  to  bore  in  metal  as 
well  as  in  wood.  As  this 
bit  has  no  spur,  it  is  best 
to  make  a  "seat"  for  it. 
In  metal  a  punch  is  used; 
in  wood  an  awl,  Fig.  73, 
Fig.  71.  Measuring  Depth  will  be  used. 

Gimlet  bits,  Fig.  74,  are  used  mainly  in  boring  small 
holes  for  screws. 

The  brad  awl  is  used  in  making  very  small  holes  for 


Fig.  72.     Drill  Bit 


Fig.  73.     Scribe  Awi 


Fig.  74.     Gimlet  Bit 


Fig.  75.     Countersink  Bit 


Fig.  76.     Screwdriver  Bit 


CHISELS  AND   CHISELING  47 

small  screws,  but  more  especially  for  nails.  It  differs 
from  the  scribe  awl  only  in  that  its  extremity  has  a 
chisel  edge  instead  of  a  point. 

26.  Countersink  Bit ;  Screwdriver  Bit. — The  counter- 
sink bit,  Fig.  75,  is  used  to  enlarge  the  holes  bored  for 


J 

1 

=^T=fti- 

~~' 

) 

/ 

/           ^^  —  L^ 

5HANK 

Fig.  77.     Firmer 

HAHDLE'    LEATHER  TIP 
Chisel 

} 

^  H  1 
_^—  ^  J 

SOCKET' 

Fig.  78.     Framing  Chisel 


FERRULE 


the  bodies  or  cores  of  flat-head  screws,  that  the  heads 
may  be  sunk  slightly  below  the  surface  of  the  wood. 

The  screwdriver  bit,  Fig.  76,  is  used  in  connection  with- 
the  brace  for  the  rapid  insertion  of  screws.  To  avoid  the 
screwdriver  bit's  jumping  out  of  the  groove  in  the  head 
of  the  screw,  after  each  half  turn  of  the  crank,  move  the 
crank  backward  very 
slightly. 

27.  Chisels.— The 
two  kinds  of  chisels 
most  commonly  used 
are  the  firmer  chisel, 
Fig.  77,  and  the  framing 


Fig.  79.     Mallet 


chisel,  Fig.  78.  The  firmer  chisel  is  lighter  than  the 
framing  chisel  and  is  used  for  fine  work.  The  framing 
chisel  is  used  where  the  work  is  such  as  to  demand 


48 


WOODWORK   FOR   BEGINNERS 


pounding  with  a  mallet,  Fig.  79,  to  force  its  edge  into 
the  wood.  The  firmer  chisel  is  usually  fitted  on  a 
tang,  though  it  may  be  fitted  with  a  socket. 

The  size  of  a  chisel  is  indicated  by  the  width  of  the 
cutting  edge. 


Fig.  80.     Position  of  Hands, 
Horizontal  Chiseling 


Fig.  81.     Position  of  Hands, 
Vertical  Chiseling 


A  chisel,  to  do  good  work,  must  be  kept  sharp.  To 
avoid  any  chance  for  injury,  both  hands  should  at  all 
times  be  kept  back  of  the  cutting  edge,  Figs.  80  and  81. 

28.  Chiseling. —  In  paring  across  the  grain  horizon- 
tally, place  the  piece  of  wood  in  a  vise  so  that  both  hands 
may  be  free  to  manipulate  the  chisel,  Fig.  80.  With  the 
bevel  side  of  the  chisel  up,  pare  almost  all  the  way  across 
the  piece,  taking  fairly  large  cuts  at  first,  with  thinner 
ones  as  the  line  is  approached.  Reverse  the  piece,  and 
finish  the  cutting  from  the  second  side. 

The  sides  of  such  a  groove  would  be  sawed  first. 


CHISELS  AND   CHISELING 


49 


Where  it  is  desired  to  trim  or  pare  the  sides  of  such 
a  groove  to  make  the  groove  wider,  the  chisel  will  be 


Fig.  82.     Gouge 

held  as  in  Fig.  81,  the  worker  standing  so  that  he  may 
sight  along  the  line  he  is  cutting.  Very  small  portions 
are  taken  at  a  time,  about  y&  in.  of  the  blade  being  used 


.. 


Fig.  83.     Position  of  Hands, 
Heavy  Cut 


Fig.  84.     Position  of  Hands, 
Light  Cut 


for  cutting,  the  rest  of  the  blade  being  held  against  the 
surface  already  pared.  The  movement  of  the  handle  is 
forward  and  downward  to  give  what  is  known  as  a  shear- 
ing cut,  Fig.  81. 


50  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

29.  The  Gouge. —  The  gouge,  Fig.  82,  which  is  a 
chisel  of  curved  section,  may  have  its  bevel  on  either  the 
inside  or  outside  of  the  curved  blade.  Figs.  83  -and  84 
illustrate  the  manner  of  holding  an  outside  beveled 


Fig.  86.     Whetting  a  Chisel 


Fig.  85.     Grinding  a  Chisel 


Fig.  87.     Starting  Position  in  Whetting 


gouge  for  taking  heavy  and  light  cuts.  Gouges  cut 
better  when  given  a  circular  movement  at  the  cutting 
edge  as  the  tool  is  pushed  forward. 

30.  Whetting  Chisels  and  Plane  Irons.— When 
edged  tools  become  dulled  through  repeated  whettings, 
or  through  being  brought  into  contact  with  metal, 
they  must  be  ground,  Fig.  85.  Grinding  is  a  rather 
difficult  task  for  beginners  to  learn  to  do  well.  .Beginners 
ought,  however,  to  learn  to  whet  their  edged  tools. 


CHISELS  AND   CHISELING 


51 


Fig.  88. 
Shape    of 
Jack-plane 
Iron.     E  x  - 

aggerated. 


Whetting  consists  in  rubbing  the  tool  backward  and 

forward,  Fig.  86,  taking  care  to  hold  the  tool  at  one  and 
the  same  angle.  This  angle  may  be  deter- 
mined as  follows:  place  a  little  oil  on  the 
stone,  and  placing  the  iron  as  in  Fig.  87, 
gradually  raise  the  handle  until  the  oil 
can  be  seen  to  press  out  from  under  the 
cutting  edge,  Fig.  86.  To  raise  the  handle 

any  higher  would  result  in  a  blunt  edge  in  whetting. 

Not  to  raise  it  high  enough  to  expel  the  oil  would  result 

in  the  whetting  being 

done  at  the  heel  of  the 

bevel,  which  would  do 

no  good. 

Oil  is  used  upon  a 

whetstone  to  mix  with 

and  remove  the  little 

particles  of  steel  which, 

otherwise,  would  clog 

the  pores  of  the  stone. 
A  chisel  has  its  edge 

ground  straight  across. 

A  plane  iron  for  general 


Fig.  89.     First  Stropping  Position 


Fig.  90.     Second  Stropping  Position 


manual  training  pur- 
poses is  ground  straight 
across  but  is  whetted 
slightly  rounded  as  in 
Fig.  88. 

Whetting  usually  causes  a  wire  edge  to  be  turned  up 
on  the  face  of  a  chisel  or  plane-iron.  This  wire  edge  may 
be  detected  by  rubbing  the  fingers  along  the  face  out 


52 


WOODWORK   FOR   BEGINNERS 


over  the  edge.  To  remove  this  edge,  strop  the  tool 
upon  a  piece  of  leather  upon  which  has  been  placed  a 
slight  coating  of  oil  and  emery  dust.  Hold  the  tool 
first  as  in  Fig.  89,  then  as  in  Fig.  90,  alternating  rapidly 
from  one  position  to  the  other  as  the  stropping  proceeds. 


Fig.  91.    Thumb-nail  Test  for 
Sharpness 


Fig.  92.     Mechanics'  Test  for 
Sharpness 


There  are  a  number  of  ways  of  telling  whether  an  edge 
is  sharp  or  not.  One  way  is  to  draw  the  edge  over  the 
thumb-nail  as  in  Fig.  91.  If  the  tool  is  sharp  it  can  be 
felt  "  taking  hold."  If  the  edge  is  not  sharp  it  will 
simply  slide  over  the  nail. 

A  more  delicate  test,  the  one  used  by  carpenters,  is 
to  make  the  same  kind  of  a  test  but  using  the  ball  of  the 
thumb,  Fig.  92.  Judgment  is  required  in  this  latter 
test  or  a  cut  thumb  will  be  the  result.  Do  not  use  a 
finger.  The  thumb  is  calloused  and  when  the  sharp 
edge  " takes  hold"  it  is  cutting  in  this  callous. 


CHAPTER  VII 

ADDITIONAL  TOOLS  AND  APPLIANCES;  THEIR  USES. 

31.  Sandpaper. —  Sandpaper  should  be  used  only 
after  the  edged  tools  have  completely  finished  their 
work.  Sandpaper  is  intended  merely  as  a  means  of 


Fig.  93.     Sandpapering  Flat 
Surface 


Fig.  94.     Sandpapering  Curved 
Surface 


smoothing  a  surface,  and  any  attempt  to  make  it  do  the 
work  of  an  edged  tool  will  result  in  an  unsatisfactory 
piece  of  work. 

In  sanding  flat  surfaces  use  a  block,  holding  the  paper 
with  the  fingers  as  indicated  in  Fig.  93,  sanding  along, 
not  across,  the  grain  of  the  wood.  Curved  surfaces  will 
be  sanded  with  the  paper  held  free  in  the  hand,  as  in 
Fig.  94. 

On  flat  surfaces  the  arrises  are  kept  sharp,  unless  upon 
the  arm  of  a  chair,  or  similar  part,  where  the  sharpness 
would  cause  injury  or  discomfort. 

53 


54 


WOODWORK   FOR   BEGINNERS 


The  relative  fineness  or  coarseness  of  sandpaper  can 
be  told  by  the  number  stamped  upon  the  back  of  each 


HANDLE 


Fig.  95.     Claw  Hammer 

sheet.  These  numbers  vary  from  00  to  2,  the  former 
being  quite  fine  and  used  for  sanding  shellac  and  other 
finishes.  No.  1  is  most 
commonly  used  in  manual 


Js|§i 


'CUP  POINT 

training  work.  Fig.  96.    Nailset 

Never  sandpaper  the  parts  to  a  joint;  the  edged  tools 

must  be  depended  upon  entirely  for  joint  work. 

32.  Hammer;  Nailset. 
—The  hammer  most  com- 
monly used  by  woodwork- 
ers is  what  is  known  as  a 
bell-faced  claw  hammer, 
Fig.  95.  The  face  of  this 
hammer  is  slightly  rounded 
that  it  may  be  used  in  set- 
ting nails  upon  outside  work 
where  the  depression  left 


Fig.  97.     Setting  Nails 


by  the  face  of  the  hammer 
is  not  objectionable. 
Upon  inside  work,  and  in  cabinet  work,  a  nailset,  Fig. 
96,  will  be  used  in  setting  nails.     Such  a  set  is  held  as  in 


ADDITIONAL  TOOLS 


55 


Fig.  98. 
Wire  Nails 


Fig.  99. 
Cut  Nails 


Fig.  97,  one  of  the  fingers  resting  against  its  point  and 

upon  the  surface  of  the  wood  at  the  same  time,  to  prevent 

the  set  from  jumping  off  the  nail 

head  when  the  blow  is  struck  with 

the    hammer.      The  head  of  the 

nail  will  be  driven  very  slightly 

below  the  surface  of  the  wood. 
33.   Nails ;  Nailing. —  Nails  used 

by  woodworkers  differ  in  shape  or 

style   according  to   their  peculiar 

use.     The  most  common  type  is 

the  wire  nail,  Fig.  98.      The  cut 

nail,  Fig.  99,  is  often  used  for  fast- 
ening shingles  as  it  does  not  rust 

as  quickly  as  the  wire  nail.  '  These 

nails  are  each  classed  as  common, 

finishing,  and  casing  nails,  Figs.  98 

and  99.     Nails  are  sold  by  the  pound  and  are  roughly 

classified  as  to  size  by  the 
term  penny,  as  3  penny, 
6  penny,  etc.  A  more  ac- 
curate specification  is  one 
which  indicates  the  gage  of 
the  wire  as  indicated  upon 
a  wire  gage,  Fig.  100,  and 
the  length  of  the  nail  in 
inches;  thus,.  IX"  No.  17 
finishing  nail.  In  deter- 
mining the  gage  of  a  nail,  it 


Fig.  100.     Wire  Gage 


Fig.  101.     Nailing 


should  be  noted  that  the  reading  is  obtained  by  fitting 
the  slot  of  the  wire  gage,  and  not  the  hole  to  the  body 


56 


WOODWORK   FOR  BEGINNERS 


of  the  nail.  The  number  at  the  slot  which  comes 
nearest  fitting  is  the  one  which  indicates  the  gage  of  the 
nail. 

In  nailing  through  one  piece  into  the  edge  of  another 

piece,  the  worker  should  stand 
so  that  he  may.  sight  along  the 
second  piece  into  which  he  is 
nailing,  Fig.  101.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  start  one  of  the 
nails  in  the  first  piece  so  that 
its  point  just  projects  slightly 
through  the  reverse  side,  the 
board  being  placed  upon  a 
scrap  block  that  the  nail  point 
may  not  injure  the  bench  top. 
After  this  the  first  member  is 


Fig.  102.      Withdrawing  Nails 


placed  upon  the  second  member  as  in  Fig.  101  and  the 
nail  driven  in. 

In  nailing  on  box  bottoms,  care  must  be  taken  to  so 
place  the  nails  that  they  shall  not  strike  nails  previously 


HANDLE 


BLADE/ 
Fig.  103.     Screwdriver. 


DETAIL  OF  POINT- 


driven  through  the  sides  into  the  ends  or  partitions  of  the 
box.  Should  a  nail  not  take  the  desired  direction,  noth- 
ing is  gained  by  striking  it  sidewise  with  the  hammer  in 
an  effort  to  change  its  direction.  This  but  serves  to 
aggravate  the  difficulty  by  bending  the  nail  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  will  "come  out"  sooner  than  it  otherwise 


ADDITIONAL  TOOLS 


57 


104 


Fig.  105 

Determining 

Length  of 

Screw 


would  have  done.     Withdraw  the  nail  and  start  it  in  a 
new  location. 

In  withdrawing  a  nail,  place  a  block  of  scrap  wood 
under  the  head  of  the  hammer  to 
prevent  its  marring    the    wood, 
Fig.  102.     If  the  nail  is  long,  use 
several  blocks  of  different  thick- 
nesses as  the  nail  is  withdrawn. 
34.  The  Screwdriver ;  Screws ; 
Fastening  with  Screws. — In  Fig. 
103  is  shown  a  common  type  of 
screwdriver.     The  end  if  shaped 
as  shown  will  be  found  less  likely 
to  "jump  out"  of  the  groove  in  Screw  Gage 
the  head  of  the  screw,  resulting  in      in  Use 
a  marred  surface  on  the  wood. 

Screws  used  in  woodwork  are  of  two  kinds:  round- 
head and  flat-head,  either  bright  or  blued  steel,  or  brass. 
They  are  made  entirely  by  machines  and 
are  put  up  in  pasteboard  boxes  and  sold 
by  the  gross.  The  size  of  a  screw  is 
designated  by  its  screw  gage  and  its  length 
in  inches.  Fig.  104  shows  the  manner  of 
placing  a  screw  in  the  screw  gage  to  deter- 
mine its  gage.  Fig.  105  shows  the  manner 
of  determining  its  length. 
When  fastening  two  pieces  of  hardwood  together, 
holes  will  have  to  be  bored  in  both  lower  and  upper  piece 
as  shown  in  Fig.  106.  This  illustration  shows  the  screw 
hole  in  the  upper  member  countersunk  ready  to  receive 
a  flat-head  screw.  Round-head  screws  require  no 


Fig.  106. 
Holes     Bored 
in  Hard  Wood 
for  Screw 


58  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

countersinking.     Upon  soft  wood  the  hole  in  the  lower 
member  is  not  necessary. 


SCREW 
JAW 


PALL- 


BAR 

Fig.  109.     Bar  Clamp 


35.   Glue ;  Clamps. —  Cabinet-makers  use  glue  instead 
of  nails  for  fastening  parts  together.     Glue  is  made  from 

the  strippings  of  hide, 
from  horns,  hoofs, 
etc.,  of  animals. 
These  are  boiled  to  a 
jelly-like  consistency 
and  chemically 
treated  to  give  a  clear 
color,  and  remove  the 

t  disagreeable  odor.  As 

Fig.  110.     Position  for  Adjusting  Clamp 

glue     liquifies     very 

slowly,  it  must  be  heated  in  a  double  boiler,  Fig.   107, 
the  outer  pot  containing  water. 

Glue  is  prepared  by  soaking  it  in  water  over  night,  then 


ADDITIONAL  TOOLS  59 

applying  a  steady  heat  to  the  outer  pot  or  kettle.  Water 
is  added  as  the  glue  cooks  until  the  glue  has  a  con- 
sistency which  will  flow  freely  when  applied  with  a  brush. 


THUMB-SCREW- 
HANDLE 


Fig.  111.     Spokeshave 

Clamps  are  used  to  expel  the  surplus  glue  from 
between  the  parts  being  glued  together.  Two  kinds  are 
in  common  use,  the  hand-clamp,  Fig.  108,  and  the  bar- 
clamp,  Fig.  109. 

In  placing  the  hand-clamp,  see  that  the  jaws  are  kept 
parallel,  adjusting  by  ro- 
tating   the    clamp    as   in 
Fig.     110.       Tighten    the 
back  spindle  last. 

36.  The  Spokeshave; 
Working  Curved  Edges.— 
The  spokeshave,  Fig.  Ill, 
is  practically  a  short  plane, 
and  like  the  plane  should 
be  adjusted  so  that  it  will 


Fig.   112.     Gaging  Chamfers  for 
Curved  Edge 


remove  thin  shavings.  It 
is  used  chiefly  upon  curved 
surface  work  and  may  be  either  pushed  or  pulled. 
To  make  a  curved  edge  upon  the  edge  of  a  board, 
pencil  gage  lines  on  each  of  the  broad  surfaces  which 
shall  indicate  the  amount  of  curvature.  Next,  on  the 
edge,  pencil  gage  two  lines  each  a  distance  from  an  edge 


60  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

equal  to  one- fourth  the  thickness  of  the  piece,  Fig.  112. 
Spokeshave  or,  if  the  edge  is  straight,  plane  off  the  two 
arrises  so  as  to  leave  three  surfaces,  the  central  one  being 
the  broader.  Next,  estimating  the  amount  with  the 
eye,  remove  the  two  central  arrises  until  five  equal 
surfaces  have  been  formed.  Holding  the  sandpaper  as 
in  Fig.  94,  sand  along  the  grain  until  a  smooth  curve  is 
formed. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SIMPLE  JOINERY 

37.  Joinery;  General  Directions. —  The  term  joinery 
as  used  herein  refers  merely  to  the  fitting  together  of 
two  or  more  parts  called  the  members.  Take  into  con- 
sideration the  direction  of  the  grain  in  planning  the  rela- 
tive positions  of  the  members.  Make  due  allowance 
where  shrinkage  is  likely 
to  be  considerable. 

As  far  as  possible,  plan 
to  have  the  members  join 
face  to  face.  Face  sides 
are  more  likely  to  be  true 
than  are  the  other  two  sur- 
faces and  therefore  the 
joints  are  more  likely  to 
fit  properly. 

Make  all  measurements  from  a  common  starting  point, 
as  far  as  practicable.  Remember  to  keep  the  head  of 
the  gage  and  the  beam  of  the  try-square  against  one  or 
the  other  of  the  faces,  unless  there  should  be  special 
reasons  for  doing  otherwise. 

In  practice  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  locate  the  sides 
of  a  joint  by  superposition  rather  than  by  measurement. 
Laying  out  by  superposition  consists  in  placing  one  mem- 
ber upon  another  and  marking  upon  the  second  member 

61 


Fig.  113.     Locating  by 
Superposition 


62 


WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 


the  width,  thickness  or  length  of  the  first.  Fig.  113. 
Usually,  it  is  found  possible  to  locate  and  square  with 
knife  and  try-square  a  line  to  represent  one  of  the  sides 
of  the  joint.  The  first  member  is  then  held  so  that  one 

of  its  arrises  rests  upon 
this  line,  and  a  point  is 
made  with  knife  at  the 
other  arris.  The  super- 
imposed piece  is  then  re- 
moved and  a  line  made 
with  knife  and  try-square, 
through  the  mark  of  the 
knife  point. 

Where  several  members 


Fig.  114. 


Members  Marked  after 
Fitting 


or  parts  are  to  be  laid  out, 
cut  and  fitted,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  the  work  be  done  systematically. 
System  and  power  to  visualize  —  that  is,  to  see  things 
in  their  proper  relation  to  one  another  in  the  finished 
piece  —  make  it  possible  for  men  to  lay  out  and  cut  the 
members  of  the  most  intricate  frames  of  buildings  before 
a  single  part  has  been  put  together.  Where  several 
joints  of  a  similar  size  and  kind  are  to  be  fitted,  mark 
the  different  parts  to  each  joint  with  the  same  number 
or  letter  as  soon  as  fitted,  that  no  other  member  may 
be  fitted  to  either  of  these.  Fig.  114.  On  small  pieces, 
such  as  the  stool,  it  is  possible  to  aid  in  visualizing  by 
setting  up  the  posts  in  the  positions  they  are  to  occupy 
relative  to  one  another,  -marking  roughly,  as  with  a  pen- 
ciled circle,  the  approximate  location  of  the  mortises, 
auger  holes,  etc.  Fig.  115.  The  members  may  then  be 


SIMPLE  JOINERY 


63 


laid  on  the  bench  and  accurately  marked  without  danger 
of  misplacing  the  openings. 

While  the  knife  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  laying  out 
joints,  there  are  a  few  instances  in  which  a  pencil,  if  well 
sharpened  and  used 
with  slight  pressure  is 
preferable.  To  illus- 
trate, suppose  it  is  de- 
sired to  locate  the  ends 
of  the  mortises  in  the 
posts.  Fig.  114.  To 
knife  entirely  across 
the  surfaces  of  the  four 
pieces  and  around  the 
sides  of  each,  as  would 
be  necessary  to  locate 
the  ends  of  the  mor- 
tises, would  injure  the 
surfaces.  Instead,  pen- 
cil these  lines  and  gage  Fig.  115. 
between  the  pencil 
lines.  Those  parts  of  the  pencil  lines  enclosed  by  the  gage 
lines  —  the  ends  of  the  mortises  —  may  then  be  knifed, 
if  desired,  to  assist  in  placing  the  chisel  for  the  final  cut. 

In  sawing  joints  in  hard  wood,  the  saw  should  be  made 
to  cut  accurately  to  the  line.  When  working  soft  wood, 
beginners  are  often  permitted  to  leave  a  small  margin  — 
about  one  thirty-second  of  an  inch  —  between  the  knife 
line  and  the  saw  kerf.  This  margin  is  afterward  pared 
away  with  the  chisel. 

In  assembling  framework  and  the  like,  where  it  is 


Location  of  Joints  Roughly 
Marked 


64 


WOODWORK   FOR  BEGINNERS 


necessary  to  drive  the  parts  together,  always  place  a 
block  of  wood  upon  the  member  to  be  pounded  to  take 
the  indentations  that  will  be  made.  A  mallet  is  prefer- 
able to  a  hammer  for  such  pounding. 

Frequently  a  piece  of  work  will  require  the  making  oi7 
two  or  more  like  parts.  To  lay  out  these  parts,  that  is, 
to  mark  out  the  location  of  intended  gains,  mortises, 


Fig.  116.     Making  Ends 
Even 


Fig.  117. 


Marking  Duplicate 
Lengths 


shoulders  of  tenons,  etc.,  so  that  all  shall  be  alike,  the 
following  method  is  used:  (1)  On  the  face  edge  of  one 
of  the  pieces  measure  off  with  the  rule  and  mark  with 
knife  the  points  at  which  the  lines  for  the  joints  are  to  be 
squared  across.  If  knife  marks  would  show  on  the 
finished  surface  as  scratches,  use  a  sharp  pencil  instead. 
(2)  Lay  the  pieces  on  the  bench  top  with  the  face  edges 
up;  even  the  ends  with  the  try-square.  Figs.  116  and 
117.  Square  lines  across  the  edges  of  all  of  them  at  the 
points  previously  marked  on  one  of  them.  The  pieces 
may  then  be  separated  and  lines  corresponding  to  the 
lines  just  made  on  the  face  edges  be  carried  across 


SIMPLE  JOINERY  65 

the  face  sides  of  each  piece  separately,  the  try-square 
beam  being  held  against  the  face  edge  in  so  doing,  of 
course. 

In  all  duplicate  work  the  aim  of  the  worker  should  be 
to  make  as  much  use  as  possible  of  the  tool  he  has  in 
hand  before  laying  it  down  and  taking  another.  To 
illustrate,  if  there  should  be  a  number  of  like  parts,  each 
requiring  two  different  settings  of  the  gage,  he  should 
mark  all  of  the  parts  at  the  first  setting,  then  all  at  the 


Fig.  118.    Testing  Dado  for  Depth 

second  setting,  rather  than  to  change  the  gage  for  each 
piece  so  that  each  piece  might  be  completely  marked 
before  another  is  begun. 

38.  Directions  for  Making  a  Dado. —  A  dado,  Fig. 
118,  is  made  by  cutting  a  rectangular  groove  entirely 
across  one  member  into  which  the  end  of  another  member 
fits.  Dadoes  are  cut  across  the  grain  of  the  wood;  when 
similar  openings  are  cut  parallel  to  the  grain,  they  are 
called  simply  grooves.  Dadoes  are  used  in  the  making 
of  shelving,  window  and  door  frames,  etc. 

(1)  Locate  by  means  of  the  rule  one  side  of  the  dado 
and  mark  its  position  with  the  point  of  the  knife. 
(2)  At  this  point,  square  a  sharp  line  across  the  piece 
with  knife  and  try-square.  (3)  By  superposition,  locate 
and  mark  the  second  side.  (4)  Square  these  lines  across 


66  WOODWORK   FOR   BEGINNERS 

the  edges  of  the  piece  a  distance  equal  to  the  approximate 
depth  of  the  dado.  (5)  Set  the  gage  for  the  required 
depth  and  gage  between  the  knife  lines  on  the  two  edges. 
(6)  Saw  just  far  enough  inside  the  knife  lines  that  the 
sides  of  the  dado  may  be  finished  to  the  lines  with  the 
chisel.  Saw  down  just  to  the  gage  lines,  watching  both 
edges  that  the  kerfs  be  not  made  too  deep.  (7)  Chisel 
out  the  waste  until  the  bottom  of  the  dado  is  smooth  and 
true.  Test  the  bottom  as  shown  i;i  Fig.  118.  Two 


Fig.  119.     Cross-lap  Joint 

brads  are  driven  into  a  block  having  a  straight  edge 
until  they  project  a  distance  equal  to  the  proposed  depth 
of  the  dado.  (8)  Pare  the  sides  of  the  dado  to  the  knife 
lines.  These  sides  might  be  finished  in  another  way,  by 
setting  a  wide  chisel  in  the  knife  line  and  tapping  it 
gently  with  a  mallet.  If  care  is  taken  the  successive 
settings  of  the  chisel  need  not  show. 

Where  the  dado  is  to  be  cut  on  a  piece  narrow  enough 
that  the  saw  may  be  made  to  follow  the  line  accurately,  it 
is  considered  better  practice  to  saw  accurately  to  the  line. 

39.  Cross-lap  Joint. — Usually,  stock  for  the  two 
members  of  the  cross-lap  joint  can  be  best  planed  to 
width  and  'thickness  in  one  piece.  Place  two  sets  of 
face  marks  on  the  piece,  so  that  there  shall  be  one  set  of 


SIMPLE   JOINERY 


67 


rig.  120.     Testing  for  Like 
Dimensions 


marks    on    each    member    after    they    are    separated. 
Fig.  119. 

40.    Directions  for  Cross-lap  Joint. —  (1)  Square  the 
two  ends,  measure  from  each  of  these  the  desired  length 

of  each  member,  square 
knife  lines  around,  saw 
apart,  finishing  the  ends 
*  square  to  the  lines.  (2) 
Measure  from  one  end  of 
each  member  the  required 
distance  to  the  nearer 
edge  of  the  joint.  Since  the  corresponding  faces  of  the 
two  members  must  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  piece 
when  the  parts  are  put  together,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  lay  off  the  groove  of  one  member  on  the  face 
and  of  the  other 
member  on  the  side 
opposite  the  face. 
If  the  joints  are  to 
be  in  the  middle  of 
each  member  but  one 
measurement  need  be 
made.  (3)  Square 
sharp  knife  lines 
across  at  these 
points.  (4)  By  super- 
position, locate  and 
knife  the  second  edge  of  each  joint.  (5)  If  the  joints  are 
to  be  in  the  middle  of  each  member,  before  proceeding 
farther,  test  to  see  that  the  lines  have  been  laid  out  pro- 
perly. If  the  members  are  placed  side  by  side  and  the 


Fig.  121.     Testing  Bottom  of  Joint 


68  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

ends  evened  as  in  laying  out  in  (2)  above,  the  lines  will  of 
necessity  correspond.  Turn  one  of  the  members  end  for 
end  and  even  the  two  ends ;  the  lines  ought  still  to  corres- 
pond. If  they  do  not,  points  marked  midway  between 
the  corresponding  lines  will  give  the  correct  position  for 
the  new  lines,  Fig.  120.  (6)  Extend  the  knife  lines  across 
the  two  adjoining  surfaces  of  each  member.  (7)  Set  the 


-N 

c 
Fig.  122.     Effect  of  Too  Tight  a  Fit 

gage  for  the  required  depth  and  gage  between  the  knife 
lines  on  the  surfaces.  Though  the  groove  on  one  member 
is  laid  out  on  the  side  opposite  the  face,  do  not  make  the 
mistake  of  holding  the  head  of  the  gage  against  other 
than  the  face.  (8)  Saw  accurately,  Section  13,  Fig.  32, 
to  the  knife  lines  and  to  a  depth  indicated  by  the  gage 
lines.  (9)  Chisel  out  the  waste  stock,  Section  38.  (10) 
Test  as  shown  in  Fig.  121.  A  well-made  cross-lap  joint 
is  one  in  which  the  members  can  be  put  together  with 
the  pressure  of  the  hands  and  which  will  not  fall  apart 
of  their  own  weight.  Fig.  122  shows  the  results  of 
" forcing  a  fit." 


CHAPTER  IX 

WOOD  FINISHING 

41.  Materials  for  Wood  Finishing.—  Finishes  are 
applied  to  woods  for  two  reasons,  first,  that  the  wood 
may  be  protected  and,  second,  that  its  appearance  may 
be  bettered. 

Of  the  materials  used  the  following  are  the  chief  ones: 
Stain,  filler,  wax,  varnishes,  oil,  and  paint.  These  may 
be  used  singly  or  in  combinations  one  with  another  or 
others  in  finishing. 

Stains  are  used  to  give  color  to  close  grained  woods. 
They  are  also  used  upon  coarse  grained  woods  before  the 
application  of  a  relatively  darker  filler. 

Varnishes  are  of  two  kinds :  spirit  or  alcohol  and  copal 
or  oil  varnish.  The  former,  because  of  its  rapid  drying 
qualities  is  used  mostly  in  manual  training  schools  where 
dust  abounds  and  no  special  finishing  room  free  of  dust 
and  of  even  temperature  is  available. 

Shellac  or  spirit  varnish  is  a  solution  of  lac  and  alcohol. 
Lac  is  soluble  in  both  grain  and  wood  alcohol  but  grain 
alcohol  is  preferable.  Beds  of  crude  lac  are  found  in 
parts  of  Africa  and  South  America  where  the  lac  has  been 
left  by  the  decay  of  leaves  and  twigs  which  it  at  one  time 
encrusted.  Crude  lac  is  deposited  upon  leaves  and  twigs 
of  certain  of  the  lac-bearing  trees  by  countless  numbers 
of  insects  which  draw  out  the  sap. 

Stick-lac  is  crude  lac  which  has  been  purified  some- 

69 


70 


WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 


what  of  the  bodies  and  eggs  of  the  insects  and  rolled  into 
stick  forms.  When  crushed  and  washed  it  is  known  as 
seed-lac.  When  fully  purified,  which  is  done  by  melting 
and  straining,  it  is  spread  out  and  is  known  as  shellac. 

White  shellac  is  obtained  by  bleaching.  Orange 
shellac  is  unbleached.  Pure  white  shellac  is  used  where 
the  more  yellow  shellac  would  discolor.  Orange  shellac 
is  stronger  than  white  and  will  last 
longer  but  is  harder  to  apply  be- 
cause it  sets  more  rapidly. 

Shellac  varnish  sets  quickly, 
dries  hard,  but  softens  under 
moisture.  Unlike  oil  varnish,  it 
does  not  " level  up"  and  must, 
therefore,  be  brushed  on  quickly, 
using  long,  even  strokes.  No  spots 
must  be  omitted  for  they  cannot 
be  "  touched  up." 

Most  of  the  above  finishes  are 

applied  with  a  brush.  The  best  brushes  are  made 
from  bristles  of  the  wild  boar  of  Russia  and  China 
and  are  expensive.  They  should  be  well  cared  for, 
being  cleaned  when  not  in  constant  use.  Brushes  which 
have  been  used  in  filler,  or  paint,  or  oil  varnish  are 
cleansed  with  turpentine,  or  kerosene,  or  gasoline,  or 
benzine.  Brushes  which  have  been  used  in  shellac  are 
cleansed  with  alcohol.  Brushes  which  are  used  from 
day  to  day  should  be  kept  suspended  over  night  in 
the  liquid  being  used,  so  that  their  bristles  shall  not 
touch  the  bottom  of  the  bucket,  otherwise  they  lose 
their  shape,  Fig.  123. 


Fig.  123.    Brush  Holder 


WOOD   FINISHING 


71 


Fig.  124. 


Position  of  Hand  on 
Brush 


Alcohol  evaporates  rapidly;  shellac,  therefore,  should 
be  kept  in  a  receptacle  which  may  have  a  top  placed  over 
it  when  not  in  use.  White  shellac  is  used  for  finishing 
light  colored  woods.  It 
should  be  kept  in  a  glass 
or  stone  jar,  otherwise  the 
metal  will  cause  it  to  dis- 
color. 

42.  General  Directions 
for  Using  Brush.— (1)  Hold 
the  brush  as  in  Fig.  124.  (2) 
Dip  the  end  of  the  brush  in 
the  liquid  to  about  one-third 
the  length  of  the  bristles. 
(3)  Wipe  off  the  surplus  liquid  on  the  edge  of  the  can 
wiping  both  sides  of  the  brush  no  more  than  is  necessary 
to  keep  the  liquid  from  dripping.  A  wire  stretched 
across  the  can  as  in  Fig.  125  provides  a  better  wiping 
place  for  the  dripping  brush.  In 
wiping  the  brush  on  the  edge  of  the 
can,  some  of  the  liquid  is  likely  to 
"run"  down  the  outside.  (4)  Using 
the  end  of  the  brush,  apply  the  liquid 
near  one  end  of  the  surface  to  be 
covered.  (5)  "Brush"  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  grain.  (6)  Work  towards 
and  out  over  the  end  of  the  board,  leveling  the  liquid 
to  a  smooth  film  of  uniform  thinness.  The  strokes 
should  be  "feathered,"  that  is,  the  brush  should  be 
lowered  gradually  at  the  beginning  of  the  sweep  and 
raised  gradually  at  the  close,  otherwise,  ugly  "laps" 


Fig.  125.     Cleaning 
Wire 


72  WOODWORK   FOR  BEGINNERS 

will  result.  The  reason  for  working  out  over  the  ends 
rather  than  from  them  will  appear  with  a  little  thought. 
(7)  Now  work  toward  the  second  end.  The  arrows, 

Fig.   126,  show  the  general 

X.  N^  — **• 

directions   of    the    final    or 
feathering  strokes. 

Edges  are  usually  covered 

Fig.  126.     Bbwtknrf  Feather-      first  and  adjoining  surfaces 

afterward. 

It  frequently  happens  that  surplus  liquid  runs  over  a 
finished  surface,  especially  when  working  near  the  arrises. 
This  surplus  can  be  "  picked  up  "  by  wiping  the  brush  up- 
on the  wire  of  the  bucket  until  the  bristles  are  quite  free 
of  liquid,  and  giving  the  part  affected  a  feathering  sweep. 

If  the  object  has  an  internal  corner,  work  from  that 
out  over  the  neighboring  surfaces. 

Panels  and  sunk  places  should  be  covered  first.  After- 
ward, the  raised  places,  such  as  stiles,  rails,  etc.,  may  be 
attended  to.  Wherever  possible  the  work  should  be 
laid  flat  so  that  the  liquid  may  be  flowed  on  horizontally. 
This  is  of  especial  advantage  in  varnishing.  Vertical 
work  should  always  be  begun  at  the  top  and  carried 
downward. 

Tracing  consists  in  working  a  liquid  up  to  a  given  line 
but  not  over  it,  such  as  painting  the  sash  of  a  window. 
Tracing  requires  a  steady  hand  and  some  practice.  A 
small  brush  is  generally  used  and  the  stroke  is  made  as 
nearly  continuous  as  the  flow  of  the  liquid  will  allow, 
Fig.  127. 

43.  Simple  Finishes  for  Close-Grained  Woods. —  It 
is  taken  for  granted  that  commercially  prepared  finishes 


WOOD   FINISHING 


73 


are  to  be  used;  it  is  hardly  profitable  for  boys  to  try  to 
prepare  their  own  stains  and  other  finishes. 

First  Finish:  (1)  Remove  all  dust  from  the  sanded 
surfaces.  (2)  Coat  the  piece  to  be  finished  with  thin 
white  shellac.  (3)  Allow  this  to  stand  over  night; 
then  sandpaper  lightly  with  No.  00  paper  held  upon  the 
tips  of  the  fingers,  Fig.  128.  Sand  just  enough  to 
remove  the  roughness  of  the  shellaced  surface.  Do  not 
use  a  block  for  the 
sandpaper;  it  is 
smoothness  and  not 
levelness  that  is  re- 
quired. It  is  too 
late  to  try  to  secure 
a  level  surface.  (4) 
Apply  a  coat  of  pre- 
pared floor  wax. 
These  waxes  are 
made  to  dry  very 
rapidly.  Thedirec- 

tions  for  their  application  will  be  found  printed  upon  the 
can  labels.  An  easy  way  to  remember  these  directions 
is  to  note  that  such  waxes  are  applied  and  polished  just 
as  are  the  paste  shoe  polishes  so  generally  used.  (5)  Pol- 
ish this  wax  after  it  has  stood  some  ten  or  fifteen  minutes, 
using  a  flannel  cloth.  (6)  After  an  hour  another  coat  of 
wax  may  be  applied  and  polished  if  desired.  The  more 
coats  of  wax  the  better  the  finish. 

Second  Finish:  This  finish  is  like  the  one  just  de- 
scribed, except  that  a  coat  of  stain  of  the  desired  color 
is  applied  to  the  wood  just  before  the  thin  coat  of  shellac. 


74 


WOODWORK   FOR   BEGINNERS 


Stains  are  of  three  kinds:  water,  oil,  and  spirit.  Each 
has  its  advantages  and  its  disadvantages.  For  simple 
manual  training  pieces,  oil  stains  are  recommended. 
Such  stains  are  nothing  more  than  paint  thinned  to 
proper  consistency.  Apply  them  with  a  brush,  and 
immediately  wipe  the  surface  clear  of  the  surplus  mate- 
rial, using  a  cloth  or  piece  of  cotton  waste.  Make 
certain  that  all  excess  has  been  removed  from  corners 


Fig.  128.     Sanding  a  Finish 

as  well  as  surfaces,   otherwise  a  muddied  effect  will 
result  at  the  uncleaned  places. 

44.  Simple  Finishes  for  Coarse-grained  Woods.— 
The  finishing  of  coarse-grained  woods  differs  from  that  of 
finishing  close-grained  woods  chiefly  in  the  means 
taken  to  " build  up"  the  open  grain  of  the  coarse-grained 
woods  to  the  same  level  as  that  of  its  close  grain.  This  is 
accomplished  by  means  of  filler.  Paste  filler  is  usually 
made  of  ground  rock  crystal  mixed  with  linseed  oil, 
Japan  drier,  and  turpentine.  It  may  be  either  light  or 
natural  in  color,  or  colored  in  any  one  of  a  number  of 
shades. 


WOOD   FINISHING  75 

First  Finish:  (1)  Thin  the  filler  with  turpentine  until 
it  makes  a  thin  paste.  (2)  With  a  stiff-bristled  brush, 
force  the  filler  into  the  pores  of  the  wood  and  leave 
the  surface  covered  with  a  thin  coating.  (3)  Allow  this 
to  stand  until  the  filler  has  "flatted,"  that  is,  until  the 
" gloss"  has  disappeared  and  the  filler  becomes  dull  and 
chalkish.  The  time  required  for  this  to  take  place 
varies.  Twenty  minutes  is  not  unusual.  (4)  Rub  the 
filler  off  just  as  soon  as  it  has  flatted  —  do  not  let  it 
stand  longer,  for  the  longer  it  stands  the  harder  it  is  to 
remove.  Rub  across  the  grain  as  much  as  is  possible, 
using  a  wad  of  excelsior.  Finish  fine  work  by  going  over 
it  a  second  time  with  a  cloth,  rubbing  with  the  grain  as 
well  as  across,  that  the  "high  lights"  may  be  clear  of 
filler. 

On  fine  work  use  a  felt  pad  to  rub  the  filler  into  the 
pores,  and  rub  off  with  a  cloth  only. 

Twenty-four  hours  should  be  allowed  the  filler  to 
harden.  One  filling  is  sufficient  for  ordinary  work;  on 
fine  work  the  above  process  is  sometimes  repeated  after 
the  first  filling  has  hardened. 

The  striking  contrasts  in  the  grain  of  wood  such  as 
oak  and  chestnut,  obtained  by  the  use  of  colored  fillers 
are  due  to  the  dark  fillers  remaining  in  the  open  grain 
but  being  wiped  off  of  the  close  grain  —  the  "high 
lights."  (5)  Apply  a  thin  coat  of  shellac  and  allow  it 
to  dry  over  night.  (6)  Sand  lightly  with  No.  00  paper 
held  upon  the  finger  tips.  (7)  Apply  one  or  two  coats 
of  wax. 

Second  Method:  The  second  method  is  similar  to  the 
one  just  described  except  that  before  the  filler  is  applied 


76  WOODWORK  FOR  BEGINNERS 

a  coat  of  stain  of  a  color  desired  for  the  "high  lights", 
the  close-grained  spots,  will  be  applied  and  allowed  to  dry 
over  night.  If  water  stain  is  used  this  will  be  sanded 
with  No.  00  paper  before  the  filler  is  applied.  Next, 
the  filler  coat  will  be  applied,  a  color  of  filler  being  used 
which  is  relatively  darker  but  of  the  same  shade  as  that 
of  the  stain  being  used.  After  this  a  thin  coat  of  shellac 
is  applied  and  the  remaining  steps  taken  as  in  the  first 
method. 

45.  Painting. —  The  purpose  of  paints  is  to  preserve 
the  wood  by  covering  it  with  an  opaque  material. 
Paints  are  usually  composed  of  white  lead  and  zinc  oxide 
and  coloring  materials  mixed  or  thinned  with  raw  or 
boiled  linseed  oil.  Turpentine  is  also  used  for  thinning 
and  as  a  drying  agent. 

Paint  must  be  well  brushed  out  so  that  a  thin  film  may 
result. 

In  painting  (1)  Cover  the  knots  with  shellac,  or  the 
oil  of  the  paint  will  be  absorbed  through  two  or  three 
coats  and  a  discoloration  result.  (2)  Put  on  a  prime 
coat.  This  coat  should  be  mixed  as  thin  as  it  can  be  and 
still  not  "run"  when  applied  to  vertical  surfaces.  (3) 
Fill  the  nail  holes  with  putty.  Sand  lightly  if  a  smooth 
finish  is  desired.  (4)  Apply  two  or  three  coats  of  paint 
thin  enough  to  flow  freely  but  thick  enough  to  cover  well 
and  not  "run." 

The  second  coat  is  given  a  little  more  than  the  usual 
amount  of  turpentine  that  a  "flat  effect"  may  prepare 
the  way  for  the  final  gloss  coat.  If  the  last  coat  is  to  be 
dull,  turpentine  is  used  in  it  as  well  as  the  second.  Oil 
causes  gloss,  turpentine  causes  a  dull  or  flat  effect. 


INDEX 


(NUMBERS  REFER  TO  PAGES) 


Against  the  Grain , 

Arris 

Auger-bit 

Awls  .  . 


Back-saw 

Bevel 

Bit,  Inserting 

Block  Plane 

Boring  to  Depth 

Boring  Positions 

Boring  Through  .  .  : 

Brace  or  Bitstock 

Broken  View 

Brush,  Directions  for  Use 

Brushes,  Care  of 

Chamfer  Planing 

Chiseling 

Chisels 

Clamps 

Compass 

Corner 

Countersink  Bit 

Cross-lap  Joint 

Cross-lap  Joint,  Directions  for 

Cross-section 

Curved  Edges 

Dado  Joint 

Dividers 

Drafting  Board 

Drafting  Tools 

Drill  Bit 

Duplicate  Parts 


8 
7 

45 
46 

22 

43 
25 
45 
45 
46 
43 
10 
71 
70 

48 

58 

18 

7 

47 
66 
67 
10 

65 
18 
11 
11 
46 
64 


Edge  Planing 33 

Edge  Tests 34 

Edges,  Hidden......... 10 

Edges,  Visible 10 

End 7 

End  Planing 37 

Face 7 

Face  Marks 28 

Face  Side,  Face  Edge 27 

Faces,  Placing  of 29 

Feathering  Strokes  of  Brush.  .  72 
Feathering  Strokes  of  Plane. . .  34 

Filler 74 

Finishes  for  Close-grained 

Woods 72 

Finishes  for  Coarse-grained 

Woods 74 

Framing  Square 16 

Gaging  Thickness 40 

Gaging  Width 36 

Gimlet  Bit 46 

Glue 58 

Gouge 50 

Grain 7 

Hammer 54 

Jack  Plane 24 

Joinery,  General  Directions  . .  61 
Jointer  Plane 24 

Knife,  Use  of 13,  63 

Lac..  .  69 


77 


78 


.-  *  INDEX 


" 


Length  _  .  4 
Lining  Across  t 
Lines,  'Ceriter4.' .'. ".  -. ".  . 
Lines,  Construction  . 
Lines,  Dimension  .  .  . 

Lines,  Dotted 

Lines,  Extension .  .  .  . 


.  .  .  ,  ,15 

..'.'.'id 

....  10 

....  10 

....  10 

....  10 

Lines,  Projection 10 

Lumber  Terms 7 

Mallet 47 

Marking  Gage 17 

Marking      to      Width      with 

Straight-edge 14 

Measuring  Length 38 

Mechanical  Drawing  Gage .  . . ,  9 
Mechanical  Drawing  Views ...  9 
Mill-marks 30 

Nailing 55 

Nails 55 

Nailset    54 

Oil  . 


Painting 76 

Pencil,  Use  of 13,  63 

Pictorial  Drawing 8 

Plane  Adjustments 25 

Plane  Parts 25 

Planes 24 

Putty 76 


Rule 


13 


Sandpaper 53 

Sandpapering   53 

Sandpapering  Finishes.  73,  75,  76 

Sawing 20 

Sawing  Parallel  to  Line 23 

Sawing  to  Length 38 

Sawing  to  Line 22 

Saws 19 

Saws,  Their  Cutting  Action     .  19 

Scale  Drawing. . . . 11 


,  Screwdriver 57 

Screwdriver  Bit 47 

Screw  Gage 57 

Screws 57 

Screws,  Fastening  with  57 

Setting  Marking  Gage 17 

Shellac 69,73,  75,  76 

Sighting  a  Plane-iron 27 

Smooth  Plane 24 

Spokeshave 59 

Squaring-up  Mill-planed 

Stock 33,  39 

Squaring-up  Rough  Stock ....  40 
Squaring-up  Stock,  General 

Discussion 31 

Stains 69,73,  74,  76 

Stock  Bill 11 

Superposition 61 

Surface  Truing 40 

Surfacing  Machine 30 

Test  for  Uniformity  of  Width .    15 
Testing    Chisels    and    Plane- 
irons  for  Sharpness 52 

Testing  Edge  for  Squareness .  .  15 
Testing  End  for  Squareness .  .  15 

Testing  True  Surface 39 

Thickness 7 

Thumb-gaging  to  Width 13 

Tracing 72 

Triangles 11 

Try-square 14 

T-square 11 

Varnishes 69 

Wax 69,73,75 

Whetting  Chisels  and  Plane- 
irons  50 

Width 7 

Wire  Gage      55 

Withdrawing  Nails 56 

Wood  Finishing  Materials ....  69 
Working  Drawings 8 


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SEP  1ft  1937 

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-EB  ig  1957 

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BKARY, 


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YB   15320 


GENERAL  LIBRARY  -  U.C.  BERKELEY 


»•"  <•••]   IBM)   || 

B00087flt.'m 


4-1^035 

$7- 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


